KENDO ORIGINS

The origins of kendo lie within koryu kenjutsu. Kenjutsu simply means “swordsmanship”. It was a method of teaching swordsmanship in feudal Japan. In early modern times (1600‒1868), the predominant martial art was kenjutsu. Initially, kenjutsu existed as koryu at ancient fencing schools that practiced traditional martial arts (ryūha). Many still exist today.

However, when the chaos of the Warring States period subsided, a few renowned warriors started to welcome disciples. Groups known as ryūha were formed by master swordsmen where they taught their skills and knowledge to select disciples.

Whether or not the techniques and teachings were systemised into a succinct curriculum had a big impact on the future prosperity or even survival of the ryūha. Regardless of the sublime degree of technical excellence the master swordsman possessed, if there was no comprehensive curriculum the school was doomed to vanish.

Among the many ryūha that evolved, the earliest to appear at the beginning of the fourteenth century focused on archery. Kenjutsu, jūjutsu (grappling) or sōjutsu (spearmanship) curricula appeared around the second half of the fifteenth century, but it was not until the middle of the sixteenth century that specific ryūha related to individual disciplines were established.

Munenori became an important officer of the shogunate, and eventually reached the level of daimyō (a lord). It could be said that Yagyū were the most successful fencing dynasty of the time. The lineage of Aisu Ikōsai’s Kage-ryū, Kamiizumi Ise-no-kami’s Shinkage-ryū, and Yagyū Muneyoshi and Munenori’s Yagyū Shinkage-ryū developed a special place within the political environment, and was the most prominent of the three.

Chūjō Hyōgo-no-kami Nagahide founded the Chūjō-ryū. Itō Ittōsai inherited the tradition and established the Ittō-ryū. Among the Ittōsai’s students was Mikogami Tenzen Tadaaki who later changed his name to Ono Jirōemon Tadaaki and succeeded his master as the head of the Ittō-ryū. The Ono-ha Ittō-ryū became a school adopted by the shogunate alongside the Shinkage-ryū. Ono Tadaaki did not reach the same position in the administration as Yagyū Munenori did, but the Ittō-ryū flourished considerably throughout the Edo period. This lineage starting with Chūjō Hyōgo-no-kami’s Chūjō-ryū, Itō Ittōsai’s Ittō-ryū and finally the Ono-ha Ittō-ryū, was not only one of the three big traditions that burgeoned during the early modern times, but also had the most influence on the techniques now seen in modern kendo.

Until the middle of Edo period, kenjutsu training was centred on pre-arranged forms named kata. However, training through kata led to a move away from actual combat and practical techniques, and some martial artists started to question this method. This provided the impetus for the development of bōgu (or kendōgu) and shinai. Fukuro-shinai was invented by Kamiizumi Nobutsuna of Shinkage-ryu during the XVI century, whereas nowadays yotsuwara-shinai was assembled much later somewhere in 1750. Somewhere between 1701 and 1715, Naganuma Shirōzaemon established a training method of kenjutsu using shinai and bogu within Jikishinkage-ryu (a descendant of Shinkage-ryu). These events are deemed the “direct origin” of the present-day kendo discipline, according to the Zen Nihon Kendo Renmei.

Shinai-uchikomi kenjutsu soon prospered. It became very popular due to the possibility of sparring freely, which instigated the rise of competitiveness in swordsmanship. Also, because of the degree of safety conferred by kendōgu, the ban on long-prohibited taryū-jiai (duels between different schools) was lifted, and the desire for competitive exchanges between ryūha became greater. As taryū-jiai used to be performed with live blades or wooden swords, serious injury or death was commonplace, and the Bakufu forbade it out of concern for reprisals.  It became more widespread as a result, because of the safety of using shinai and protective equipment.

Eventually, most kenjutsu schools of Edo started using shinai and bogu in their training.

From 1830 to 1860, many fencing salons opened in Edo. Martial arts, including kenjutsu, were originally practised by bushi only, but this rule started to weaken in the nineteenth century so that the common classes were also able to participate. Lower-ranked bushi with small income, or people not from the warrior class started to learn kenjutsu, and then taught it to make a living in what are called “machi–dōjō” or town dōjō. In Edo, there were three great machi–dōjō at the time.

The latter Edo period saw an intensification of research and systemisation of techniques for shinai-kenjutsu. As I have already mentioned, the use of kendogu (bōgu) in keiko can be traced back to the mid-1600s; however, these were extremely simplistic kinds of safety equipment, exclusive to various sword schools. In the latter half of the 1700s, warriors began to travel far and wide for the purpose of engaging in taryū-jiai. When the ban was lifted on taryū-jiai in the Tenpō era (1830–1844), this facilitated rapid progression of kendogu and the exchange of techniques and information.

In the Tenpō era, the text “Shindō Munen-ryū Kenjutsu Kokoroe-sho” by Mutō Shichinosuke, a rural samuraifrom Sukegawa (Hitachi) and head kenjutsu instructor at a Mito domain’s school, gives a detailed description of the characteristic techniques and approaches of the Ittō-ryū (Nakanishi-ha), Jikishinkage-ryū, Kyōshin Meichi-ryū, Ryūgō-ryū, (Higo) Shinkage-ryū, Yoshitsune-ryū, and Asayama Ichiden-ryū, from the perspective of the Shindō Munen-ryū. For instance: “One trait of the Ittō-ryū is to hold the shinai in the gedan position, thrust upwards to the chest and towards the men [tsuki], cut left or right kote, and at dō.” Therefore, he suggests, in response to this “One must launch an attack prior to the opponent, and from kote, strike men. One’s attack will thereby be faster than the opponent’s tsuki.” Another approach was also suggested. “When standing ready for the engagement [tachi-ai position], do not think about tsuki. Both thrusts and cuts are the same for everyone. If you think of tsuki, you will become unbalanced and you will lose.”

In “Shindō Munen-ryū Kenjutsu Kokoroe-sho”, there is mention of the exclusive use of jōdan and the quick movements generated from the position of “uki-ashi” (standing on the balls of one’s feet) that was characteristic of the Jikishinkage-ryū. According to the book “Kenjutsu Meijin-hō”, it indicates that this is “Becoming obsolete as the number of people who take jōdan is decreasing, and the gedan–seigan stance of the Ittō-ryū is growing in popularity.” Therefore, in the Kōka and Kaei periods, one can see a decline in the differences between kenjutsu schools, and the beginning of a standardisation process of techniques based on shinai-uchi (strikes with the shinai). Further, with the ban on taryū-jiai lifted, shūgyōand shinai-kenjutsu increased in popularity, and greatly contributed to the exchange and dissemination of knowledge regarding techniques and armour.

However, the foregoing was only the beginning of the overall shift. In mid XIX century Japan was opened to the world by force, resulting in unequal reaction of creating Kōbusho in order to commence preparing Japan to a potential war. Approximately five hundred fencing instructors from different schools were hired. This event born an early standardised form of kenjutsu at Kōbusho.

During the Edo period, the Tokugawa shogunate severed all relationships with foreign countries except on rare occasions. It was a period of peace for more than 260 years with almost no civil strife to speak of. Therefore, the martial arts matured into a culture comprising of both facets of character building and competition. However, at the end of the shogunate with the arrival of Perry’s America East India fleet, the re-opening of the country drew near as pressure from foreign powers became stronger. The shogunate sensed an impending crisis and started to reform its military system. Kōbusho, a place for bujutsu training, was established to bolster Japan’s military preparedness.

Kōbusho primarily emphasised kenjutsu, sōjutsu, and gunnery as necessary training for a battlefield. The training in gunnery was based on Western artillery, whereas kenjutsu and sōjutsu revolved exclusively around competitive training. Instructors were not selected through lineage but their skill in martial arts. For example, Otani Seiichirō from the Jikishinkage-ryū and Kubota Sugane from Tamiya-ryū Iai Kenjutsu were selected as instructors, whereas the Shogun’s instructors from the Yagyū family or the Ono family were not appointed.

Generally, Kōbusho was influenced by Jikishinkage-ryu and various forms of Itto-ryu and the 68 techniques of Chiba Shusaku. Following competition rules, bogu and shinai of size. Kōbusho also assigned ranks to successful kenshi based solely on their success in shiai (match) rather than mastery of a koryu.

Otani, as the head of Kōbusho’s kenjutsu department, decided to regulate the length of the shinai (this was a step towards “sportification”) to approximately 117 cm (38 size). The idea was to keep the length close to a real Japanese sword (about 100 cm), but with a slightly longer tsuka in order to grip the shinai more easily when wearing kote. It was regarded as the perfect length for actual fighting, and expected good training results with the regulated length and weight.

Because the training at Kōbusho was focussed solely on shiai, barriers between the different ryūha gradually vanished and exchanges between exponents from the same ryūha increased. This can be considered as an important step towards the unification of kenjutsu after the Meiji Restoration (1868). Nevertheless, Tokugawa shogunate’s efforts were in vain: the shogunate collapsed with the Meiji Restoration, and Japan entered the modern era.

Personally, I would consider those events the beginning of kendo. Unification of koryu kenjutsu resulted in future standardisation. It could be argued that even nowadays kendo is still not fully standardised, though.

Sometime later, in 1871, a few years after the Meiji Restoration, feudal domains were abolished and new prefectures were established instead. Bushi (warrior), who used to receive stipends from the domain they belonged to, found themselves without employment and income. Said bushi, bearers of martial traditions, thus disappeared with the feudal system of Tokugawa shogunate – “warrior–farmer–artisan–merchant”. Also, in 1876 the “haitōrei” edict was promulgated, and carrying swords in public, the symbol of the bushi class, became prohibited. Kenjutsu, which had been the predominant martial art was no longer deemed viable. Modern weapons and tactics devised by Western countries were imported, and traditional Japanese martial arts became obsolete. Thus, Japanese martial arts faced a major crisis for survival.

Kawaji Toshiyoshi (1834–1879) a samurai and the head of the police also wished to promote the practice of standardised gekiken for the policemen. He established Battotai, a sword-bearing police force enrolled of samurai who practiced gekiken with a special set of kata (formalised pattern). Battotai achieved great success during the battle of Tabaruzaka.

Following the success at that battle, gekiken had become the main training method for Keishicho (Tokyo Metropolitan Police). A set of kata “Keishicho Gekiken Kata” was created especially for the police. They also started using the present-day size 39 shinai. Gekiken had also started to be taught in schools. The first kata created to be taught in schools was “Gogyo no Kata” invented by Takano Sasaburo (kendo hanshi – Hokushin Itto Ryu master, 1862–1950). Gogyo no Kata has still been practiced at the kendo dojo of Tsukuba university.

We can see that even in pre-war kendo, it wasn’t aimed on winning a sword-fight, but to reach something beyond, and through, searching to improve oneself. Yet swordsmanship is deemed as the essential part of kendo. In the path of reaching spiritual understanding, it is necessary to be remindful of the idea of bujutsu, of life and death in kendo. Noma Hisashi also reminds us that the rules of ippon in kendo were created based on those of an effective cut with a sword.

These conventions, Noma kyoshi was preaching about, didn’t just appear in modern kendo out of nowhere. They had been developing for centuries by various ryūha just to give kenshi opportunity of testing oneself and each other. It became an incitement for future formation of kendo-specific techniques that appeared limited comparing to the great arsenal of kenjutsu. However, this limitation is only visual, thus, for better understanding we should look into different crucial aspects of development of kendo techniques.

In the final analysis it is yūkō-datotsu (ippon), a valid strike, that forms the core of the movement culture of kendo. The current “Regulations of Kendo Shiai and Shinpan” states that a yūkō-datotsu is defined as:

Also, within the setting of kendo instruction, there are many who teach the idea that a strike with “ki-ken-tai-itchi” or the unison of spirit (ki),sword (ken), and body (tai) constitutes a valid strike. This concept explains ‘ki’ as referent to vitality, ‘ken’ as the movement of the shinai, and ‘tai’as the movements of the body and correct posture. When these elements are completed with appropriate timing in one motion, they meet the requirements of yūkō-datotsu.

This section will place more focus on the elements of ‘ken’ (the movements / management of the shinai), and ‘tai’ (posture as it relates to footwork and body movements).

In the text “Yōshōnen Kendō Shidō Yōryo” (Kendo Guidebook for Instructing Children), precursor to the “Official Guide for Kendo Instruction”, the explanation of ki-ken-tai-itchi describes the element of ‘tai’ as “a posture that incorporates the stamping of the foot with a stable lower back”. This action of ‘stamping the foot’ or fumikomu may indeed be considered a movement unique to kendo. Certainly, in the kata of classical sword schools, partial and momentarily movements of stamping the feet can be seen, however, generally these kata consist of sliding footwork such as ayumi-ashi, okuri-ashi, and hiraki-ashi. Therefore, beginning with an emphasis on this stamping action, I will analyse how this method of footwork developed throughout the history of kendo, to become a recognised part of its modus operandi.

With thought to the way in which a beginner is taught how to strike shōmen-uchi to the head, it is common in the early stages for one to be directed to perform okuri-ashi whilst practising suburi and kihon-uchi. It is only after reaching a higher level of proficiency in this exercise, that a beginner is instructed to strike with fumikomi-ashi. Nevertheless, different to the okuri-ashi step, fumikomi-ashi is ordinarily accompanied by “yosei” (surplus power / momentum / continuing forward after making the strike). Although I can think of some instructors who teach fumikomi-ashi in a way that does not harness yosei, the reality is that in shiai attacks that are accompanied by this subsequent momentum are recognised as having zanshin and are considered to be yūkō-datotsu. Moreover, it is also seen in promotion examinations for higher grades. This suggests that among the many people who participate in kendo, yosei is deemed as inertia that results from fumikomi-ashi, and as such, is accepted as a somewhat inevitable part of kendo technique.

The matter of fumikomi-ashi becoming a fixture of kendo technique and the resulting yosei inertia becoming an accepted component mentioned in the texts of the Taisho era was due to the fact that this footwork was common practice in the kendo of the day, necessitating the application of a theory to such a routine. So, when did techniques centred around attacks with stamping and the subsequent momentum of yosei actually began to appear? To answer this question, we must first look at the development of kenjutsu’s use of kendōgu (bōgu).

However, in the book “Dai-Nippon Kendō-shi” (1934) by Hori Shōhei regarding kenjutsuup to this point, it states that: “One would hold the approximately 3-shaku 3-zun [approx. of 1 m] long fukuro-shinai, and move in a usual walking manner [similar to today’s kata]. That is, it was normal to move forward and cut by walking from right to left to right, or from left to right.”

Unfortunately, the exact source from which Hori hanshi bases the grounds for his account is not clearly specified. However, within the anecdotes of Otani Seiichiryō (of the Jikishinkage-ryū) who is said to have defeated Ōishi, as well as the Bujutsu Zatsuwa, it suggested that: “It has become customary in keiko of recent years to utilise longer shinai, and there are more and more people wielding a shinai that are thinner than before, is 3-shaku 6-7-zun [approx. 109‒112cm] from tip to tsuba, and including the length of the handle making it 5-shaku [approx. 152cm] or over. In keiko, opportunities for victory with the longer sword are plenty… real swords are heavier, and it is exceedingly difficult to wield them as one does a shinai.” As this passage suggests, it is clear that the popularisation of the longer shinai was one of the predominant causes in the development of the unique techniques in gekiken that differed to those of traditional kenjutsu. [ – Enomoto Shōji, “Bakumatsu Kendō ni Okeru Nijūteki Seikaku no Keisei Katei” in Nihon Budō-gaku Kenkyū]

Furthermore, spanning the Kōka period until the Kaei period (1844‒1854), Kōzaka Masataka from Himeji domain, a disciple of Chiba Shūsaku, made numerous references to fumikomi and tobikomi in his text “Chiba Shūsaku-sensei Chokuden Kenjutsu Meijin-hō”. In the Hokushin Ittōryū of the bakumatsu (towards the end of the Tokugawa period), it was acknowledged that this ‘godlike speed’ could be achieved with fumikomi and tobikomi actions.

These ideas were established for various reasons, and to enhance our understanding it is useful to take a closer look at the content of “Chiba Shūsaku-sensei Chokuden Kenjutsu Meijin-hō”. In chapter three of the book, “The Pursuit of Knowledge of Kenjutsu”, it states that:

In other words, spanning from the bakumatsu era until modern times, the value of not fearing the opponent’s kissaki or thrusts, and attacking with absolute conviction, and using fumikomi to strike men became the ideal.

Attacking men with conviction and fumikomi would result in yosei. There was some opposition from the standpoint of actual sword use. Nevertheless, fumikomi-ashi became established as a positive formula for kendo technique, and efforts to seek agreement concerning thoughts on yosei emerged from the Taishō period. Discussions regarding this matter continues to this day with a certain degree of disagreement…

Even within the ZNKR’s official seminar textbook “Kendō Kōshūkai Shiryō”, it states that ultimately the four basic footwork patterns in kendo are ayumi-ashi, okuri-ashi, hiraki-ashi, and tsugi-ashi. However, based on the fact usage of fumikomi-ashi in modern kendois widespread, instruction of fumikomi footwork at beginner level is acknowledged as a product of okuri-ashi. Also, for the higher levels of junior ranks, excessively strong fumikomi-ashi is cautioned against, and mastery of okuri-ashi and/or hiraki-ashi is encouraged to facilitate a variety of ōji-waza. Underpinning this understanding and the footwork used when striking is the accepted ideal that one should “strike from the issoku-ittō interval”.

With these considerations in mind, what is the best way to consider the issue of yosei? With regards to fumikomi-ashi and yosei,the late Komorizono Masao hanshi taught that:

In this teaching, significance is placed on the “body posture becoming completely consolidated” by quickly drawing up the left foot – and from the resulting okuri-ashi steps performed in the controlled sequence, a minimum amount of yosei is necessary to face the next challenge from an opponent.

This method of instruction was imparted to Komorizonosenseiby instructors of the Kansai region (according to Ōya). I believe that it is something that should be pondered when observing the unnecessary yosei movements and unnatural forms of zanshin found in some parts of shiai today.

In kendo, men technique (particularly shōmen-uchi) is held in high regard. For instance, of the various types of suburi the most commonly conducted strike is that of shōmen-uchi. Furthermore, it is common practice in kirikaeshi to include a shōmen-uchi at the beginning, middle, and end of the exercise. It is even common to see a men-uchi as the final strike in gokaku-geiko. How was it that so much importance came to be placed on men technique?

According to the regulations of modern shiai, there is no special ranking placed on any of the four targets of men, kote, dō, or tsuki. However, as far as the shimpan of the early Shōwa period were concerned, men techniques were more highly regarded than the other targets. In 1929, the text “Budō Hōkan”, published in commemoration of the tenran-shiai (a competition held in the presence of the emperor), makes reference to the “mind-set for kendō refereeing” according to the three masters Takano Sasaburō, Nakayama Hakudō, and Saimura Gorō. It declares, “We consider even a light tobikomi-men to be adequate”, “when one strikes at dō, and the other makes clear contact with his men an instant later, this is near enough to ai-uchi [simultaneous strikes]”. These words are similar to those mentioned by the Dai-Nippon Butokukai’s [Greater Japan Martial Virtue Society, Yamagata division] 1910 publication, “Kendō Yōran” by Koseki Norimasa. This was probably a common sentiment in all of the Butokukai branches from the end of the Meiji period until the beginning of the Shōwa period.

Following this, the use of training armour in sword schools (particularly men and kote) continued to disseminate until the late 1700s, and with prohibition of taryū-jiai lifted from the Tenpō era, exchanges and interactions between different schools increased. It was through this progression that, as men techniques were considered more difficult compared to other techniques, consideration to the value of mastering this difficult technique became more widespread.

In the text “Gekkiken Namba no Ume” (1858) written by Tenshin Shirai-ryū exponent, Tsutsui Rokuhana, it states: “One should attack men from jōdan clearly. Striking men from jōdan is ideal, yet in a difficult situation, one may also attack from seigan or gedan.” Further, when Shindō Munen-ryū student, Ono Junzō, was queried by an opponent why he does not attack tsuki or dō, he answered:

In the ZNKR’s seminar textbook in the section regarding teaching men strikes to beginners, it is also written that “shōmen uchi forms the basis for every technique, and it is essential that a great deal of time is dedicated to its detailed instruction.” Shōmen-uchi came to be viewed as an important part of kendotechnique due to the idea “because it is difficult, it has value”, and “by executing many dedicated attacks at men with correct posture, it is possible to encourage beginners’ to maintain correct form for other techniques.”

Kirikaeshi and kakari-geiko have their origins in a Hokushin Ittō-ryū practice method called “uchikomi”. In “Chiba Shūsaku-sensei Jikiden Kenjutsu Meijin-hō” (1884), there is the following passage:

Also, in terms of how to do kirikaeshi, he writes:

This means that originally kirikaeshi was not an exercise that had a limit to the number of times it was done. What mattered more than anything was to strike vigorously with mind and spirit synchronised until the arms become exhausted and you are out of breath. Only then is it possible to build fundamental skills which will help the practitioner deal with the harshness of training.

This type of training method using a wooden sword might be a little difficult to perform today, but considering the significance of kirikaeshi, for “refining striking technique moving forwards and backwards”, or training practitioners (including motodachi) to be mentally prepared in matches as if fighting “with real swords”, maybe this type of training method deserves reconsideration.

As I have already covered, the latter part of the modern Edo period saw a division and systemisation of gekiken techniques, and at the same time, severe training methods were also instigated. In “Chiba Shūsaku-sensei chokuden kenjutsu meijin-hō”, a text frequently cited in this article, the author states that “Uchikomi is not performed much in other schools, and for those who wish to truly improve at kenjutsu, not doing it will mean that reaching a skilled level is extremely difficult. Thus, for novices in this school, a duration of one year will be dedicated to uchikomi without participating in shiai.” Also, “Kangeiko will be conducted every morning over 30 days from 3.00 am until dawn, and will consist only of uchikomi, regardless of level.” Furthermore, “This uchikomi will be directed at continuous striking of the left and right men with strict attention given to the finer points, large and straight attacks to men, and left and right attacks to dō, with the purpose of becoming exceptionally proficient.”

Furthermore, within the same text there is mention of “uchikomi jūtoku” whereby ten outcomes of uchikomi training are outlaid, all with a focus prolonging “iki-ai” [breathing]. Kōsaka explains that uchikomi is “not performed much in other schools”, however it is believed that the various new fencing schools formed in the bakumatsu period devised training methods that aimed at prolonging and strengthening one’s respiratory capacity. In the book “Gekiken Sōdan” (1790) it states that in the Shindō Munen-ryū one should “maintain an ensuing focus even after a fight has ended”. It was also stated that the Kyōshin Meichi-ryū expected students to “continue focusing to meet attacks firmly.” Even in the “Shindō Munen-ryū Kenjutsu Kokoroe-sho” it refers to the Jikishinkage-ryū, whereby: “A opponent from Jikishinkage-ryū will almost certainly launch an assault afterwards, so one is better to attack rather than to contemplate this.” In short, “To maintain a continued alertness” explains that things do not come to an end with an ippon cut, but rather, techniques must be executed one after the other in an unforgiving offensive. To do this may be considered difficult, unless one undergoes extensive uchikomi type training of “iki-ai no keiko”.

As Kōsaka put it, there is a side to uchikomi that is a comprehensive and indispensable form of training for the improvement of technical ability in kendo. Additionally, the disbursement of the spirit through the repetition of kirikaeshi, uchikomi-geiko, or kakari-geiko in kangeiko for example, aside from strengthening respiratory function, helps one to recognise the actual movements of mind and body when fatigued. This suggests a way of thinking that encompasses the idea that, as a consequence, such training methods act to improve one’s responses in times of predicament.

It is within the development of various techniques and training methods in kendo that the imagination, methods, and sense of value of our predecessors can be unravelled—and I would be happy if you could learn from this.

In kendo, we are required to do sonkyo before and after a tachiai (match), as well as during practice, and it is done together with a bow. When did this tradition begin?

In the densho (written records) of the Katōda Shinkage-ryū school of swordsmanship, there are meticulously recorded details of fencing matches that took place in the last days of the Tokugawa shogunate. One such example is a densho called “Kendō Shogaku Shūchi” (1860). [– Prof. Murayama Kinji, Shiga University, has conducted thorough research on this subject]

In this densho, there is an entry concerning orishiki etiquette. My interpretation is that you squat down with both feet forming a “T”, like a wooden bell hammer, with the waist positioned directly above. The legs are spread, and the left knee is placed on the floor with the right knee slightly higher. The gaze is cast straight ahead rather than down, with tension in the nape of the neck, and the back straight with shoulders dropped. The buttocks do not protrude, and the lower abdomen is extended outwards. It was said that it is important to be mentally prepared while conducting orishiki etiquette. In other words, be prepared to defeat your opponent even before the match begins. This requires creativity and hard training.

Sonkyo in modern kendo appears to be a remnant of the tradition of orishiki or kikyo (kiza) in Japanese swordsmanship from early modern times which has been passed down in a slightly different form. It possibly became more like the current sonkyo (with the right foot positioned slightly in front of the left so the body inclines naturally to the left) and widespread with the dissemination of the “Dai-Nippon Teikoku Kendo Kata” (the current “Nippon Kendo Kata” from the Taishō and early Showa period). In the course of this process, I believe that the significance of “how to beat your opponent before the match even begins by mentally preparing yourself” from the Katōda Shinkage-ryū, or “How to slow down your rapid heartbeat” in the Jikishinkage-ryū, was reflected in sonkyo, orishiki or kikyo.

Kanji used to write “son” in sonkyo means to “squat down”, and so does the character that represents “kyo.” Sonkyo when used in relation to the tea ceremony can be read as tsukubai, and it refers to a stone basin that is placed low on the ground outside the tearoom for guests to cleanse their hands before they enter. The idea is the same as purifying the hands and mouth at shrines. In the tea ceremony, however, one must crouch down to reach the basin. It seems that by squatting down and being close to the ground while washing the hands, one is able to prepare mentally and physically before entering the special or sacred space—the tearoom.

To conclude, sokyo has its roots in Japanese traditions as a way of showing respect when entering into a special or sacred space, or as a way of controlling one’s breathing. The same can be said of kendo, but in addition to the fact that it also has significance as a form of etiquette, it also serves as a method of mental training in which one seeks to win before the match commences. Both of these lines of thought originate in early modern period kenjutsu.

In modern kendo’s regulations and refereeing rules, the areas designated as datotsu-bui are men (hidari, migi and shomen), kote (hidari and migi), dō (hidari and migi), and tsuki. Additionally, the subsidiary rules of kendo state that when striking men on the right or left side of the head, contact should be made above the temples. When striking kote, the right wrist of the opponent should be struck when kenshi is in chūdan-no-kamae, or the left or right wrist when kenshi is in a position other than chūdan-no-kamae. These rules have not changed much since the Dai-Nippon Butokukai made modifications to their rules and regulations in 1927.

Datotsu-bui in pre-modern times were quite different from the current ones described above. To begin with, when warriors wielded real swords and wore armour, the conventional way to strike an opponent was to aim for the gaps in their armour. This type of striking and thrusting can be seen in old-style kenjutsu which teaches kacchū kenjutsu (kaisha kenjutsu) i.e. to defeat opponents protected by traditional armour. According to research by Fukushima University’s Prof. Nakamura Tamio in recent years, it has been speculated that kenjutsu practice was already conducted with protective equipment in the late 1600s. However, just because practitioners used protective gear does not necessarily mean that the current target areas were introduced into kenjutsu straight away.

In a document titled “Shintō Munen-ryū Kenjutsu Kokoroe-sho” (1833) which is related to the Shintō Munen-ryū of Mito domain, there is an entry in a section that refers to the Ittō-ryū that states, “Thrust into the right armpit”. Furthermore, in the section referring to the Ryūgo-ryū, it says, “Hit the opponent’s leg, which is not something other schools would do.” The type of protective equipment that was worn depended on the school. According to the above document, students wore men, kote, and bamboo dō in the Ittō-ryū and Jikishinkage-ryū schools; only men and kote in the Kyōshin Meichi-ryū school; normally men and kote, but also dō, depending on the opponent, in the Shintō Munen-ryū school; and men, kote, dō and sune-ate in the Ryūgo-ryū school. As you can see, there were many variations.

Perhaps it became self-evident to strike the protected areas. Also, an understanding to strike each other on common target areas must have been established between the Tenpō period, when bouts between different schools became popular, and the closing stages of the Tokugawa shogunate, when kenjutsu protective equipment resembling that used now became available and worn by people beyond the boundaries of schools. Reforms in the Tenpō period encouraged active participation in the literary and military arts. Because of that, government policy became less severe with regards to the prohibition of inter-school matches. Then, in the process of establishing means and manners for executing inter-school matches, target areas seem to have been gradually incorporated to guarantee fairness and ensure safety.

Regarding kote strikes, perhaps fencers targeted both right and left, but around the final days of Tokugawa shogunate it became popular to strike only the right. For example, in “68 Kenjutsu Techniques” taught in the Hokushin Ittō-ryū, there is a section called “12 Kote Techniques”, in which 11 out of the 12 were based on the assumption that the right kote was the target. The one exception was a technique simply called “left kote”.

Another possibility was out of concerns for safety. In the 1960s many kenshi were engaged in a practice match with the condition that they were allowed to aim for left kote even when taking chūdan-no-kamae (with mutual consent). When an opponent struck the left kote his shinai tip may slid up to the left armpit. It could be extremely painful and it hurt for a long time. Something like this may well be one of the deciding factors behind right kote being designated as the target area.

In 1895, an organisation for the unification of martial arts named the Dai-Nippon Butokukai was established. The initial objective of the Dai-Nippon Butokukai was to assume leadership over budō in general, to promote and spread it, to hold tournaments, and to acknowledge martial artists who made notable contributions. In 1899, the Butokuden (Hall of Martial Virtue) was completed in the precinct of the Heian Shrine in Kyoto. 1902 saw the creation of a life pension for masters awarded with the honorary titles of hanshi or kyōshi.

Before the Second World War, Butokukai determined that that kendo was an art that teaches swordsmanship for self-improvement; the sword that gives life. Kendo, which had moved away from the killing sword in the pre-war era to the sword that gives life had returned back to the killing sword under the influence of the Ministry of Education.

Butokukai opposing this approach was restructured in 1942 into an organ of the state, effectively losing its independence. After that, it became yet another instrument in the militarisation of kendo. The rules of kendo were changed in 1943, two years before the end of the war, focusing on the use of the sword as an instrument of killing. Kendo of that era would be unrecognizable by today’s standards.

Notwithstanding that, any form of ashi-barai had been already discouraged in kendo before shinai-kyogi emerged.

Finally in 1952 kendo was legalised once again. Both kendo and shinai kyogi coexisted until shinai kyogi was completely absorbed by kendo in 1959. Kakegoe, kiai, and tai-atari returned integrally. Ashi-barai has only been maintained in police-kendo since then. We can make the point that the disappearance of ashi-barai (a cause for many falls) made the practice of kendo safer and more accessible.

With the return of kendo, Zen Nihon Kendo Renmei; successor to Butokukai was established. Kendo was reinstated in mostly the pre-war style. The shinai was restored to the size 39 rather than the wartime size 36; matches against multiple opponents and against other weapons became uncommon.

Indeed, the same approach as that of pre-war kendo prevailed. Kendo was neither to be an instrument for militarism, nor a competitive sport. As such it is very clear that swordsmanship shall remain a fundamental part of kendo. It is the method through which kendo allows us to self-improve. Kendo should be an art that values peace, courtesy and spiritual improvement above all else.

Those characters are “satsu-jin-ken" and “katsu-jin-ken”; the sword that kills, and the sword that brings life. They say the early concept of life-giving sword was originally created and advocated by the late Edo period swordsman Toranosuke Shimada under heavy influence of a mixture of Confucianism and Zen teachings. Along with Nobutomo Otani (Jikishinkage-ryū) and Susumu Oishi (Oishi Shinkage-ryū), already mentioned above, he was the one of the “Three Swordsmen of Tenpō”, particularly well skilled in kenjutsu.

Kenjutsu existed as an art for killing in the Muromachi period (from XII to XV century) and further. From XVII century until the 1930s, it became increasingly about self-improvement and the seeking of perfection through the art of the sword; was renamed to kendo in 1926, but keeping the essence through centuries.

In the 1940s kendo was instrumentalised by the Ministry of Education, and returned to the sword that brings death as in the ancient days. Thankfully, after the WWII kendo returned to the pre-war conception of swordsmanship as a mean of self-development.

This era belongs to the sword that brings life. The contemporary philosophy of kendo focuses on that as one can see through the Purpose of Kendo, as explained by the ZNKR.

The purpose of practicing kendo is:

Within kendo, swordsmanship is the method through which the practitioner cultivates his heart and spirit.

Nonetheless, if we forget that the heart of kendo is kenjutsu, that the shinai is a sword, and its techniques were initially created for killing, then kendo will lose its spiritual depth and meaning. Forgetting swordsmanship, one cannot understand the deepest teachings of kendo…